Asian Turtle Conservation Effort: captive breeding consortium
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While we strongly advocate protection of wild native populations within their natural range as the best strategy in chelonian conservation, for a number of Asian species this option is not readily available. The second best strategy is a program of sustaining viable populations in captive breeding programs for the various species of conservation concern in facilities established within SE Asia. However, considering the current, and seemingly unresolvable problems facing Asian turtles (see references below) we have developed a consortium of private organizations and institutions who conduct captive breeding programs for tortoises and freshwater turtles indigenous to the Asian region. The long range goal of this program is production of animals for eventual restocking of extirpated species. While this program is designed for species conservation it should be recognized that for many of the chelonians involved information on reproductive biology, behavior, and husbandry techniques is limited. Thus, participants in the consortium will also contribute considerably to the knowledge of many of the species. While outside the direct scope of this proposed consortium coordination with regional education and global protection efforts is critical. The Asian turtle situation is a conservation crisis of a magnitude previously unseen in modern times. We regard this program as but one strategy for the conservation of the world's most diverse turtle fauna, other programs are in place, and additional ones will develop, all are needed.
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Overview: We have developed a consortium of private captive breeding facilities worldwide. This program complements in situ conservation and will not compete for funds traditionally used for these purposes. Individual institutional efforts establishing and maintaining Asian turtle assurance colonies should be self-supporting. The objective of organizations participating in this program is to maintain fit, viable captive stocks. The long term goal is to sustain significant numbers of breeding adults to maintain genetic diversity that can produce the volume of individuals which are "fit" (can withstand disease, and carry on behavioral traits which permit restocking into natural habitats). The program also oversees the distribution of surplus offspring, and houses offspring in such a manner that they will be fit for possible reintroduction programs as the various factors currently responsible for the demise of Asian turtles are corrected. This is no small task. Minimally we must think in terms of decades and realistically perhaps a century or more. At this time, in most cases, there is ample habitat available for reintroduction and we anticipate that existing Asian sanctuary and park systems will remain in place. A second goal, one which also has considerable merit, is documentation of certain aspects of the natural history and husbandry techniques of individual species maintained in captive programs. Third, the captive populations also serve as sources for zoos and other educational acquisitions. Dead animals of known origin or age, or one of rarity are provided to museums, other specimen oriented institutions and to researchers. We view this consortium as a back up effort, where under the best scenario reintroduction of turtles will not be needed and conservation ethics in the region will radically change in the next two decades.
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However, assuming the worst case scenario, because of the time factor involved, it is important that the key participants in this consortium are well established and reputable institutions which are likely to remain in existence for the foreseeable future. Individual participants in the program therefore should each have affiliations with such institutions so that breeding stocks can be transferred once they can no longer be successfully maintained. Institutions overseeing captive stocks should be financially sound and capable of generating their own funding. Involvement of the private sector should allow for much latitude in funding, fewer problems with space constraints, by pass many costly regulations required of public institutions, and aid in the development of innovative conservation and educational strategies. In that many private organizations will not be bound by the need to exhibit animals, or required to meet needs of support groups, the housing and breeding of turtles is more efficient than setting currently available in public institutions.
A temporary board of directors has been established to oversee the early phases of this program. The board members are David S. Lee, The Tortoise Reserve, Inc.; Leslie Lavine, The Tortoise Trust; Kurt Buhlmann, Conservation International, John Iverson, Earlham College, and Barbara Bonner, The Turtle Hospital.
Some of the aspects of the curitation of assurance colonies was developed at the round table meeting in Orlando (Sept. 2000). In that the various elements of this effort will be geographically disjunct, a site visitation/accreditation team is desirable. As the effort is being set in place educators, chelonian systematists, veterinarians, geneticists and groups knowledgeable in the management of small captive populations are being brought in. In several cases appropriate specialists have already been identified. These contributors will volunteer on a temporary and rotating basis in that they are not to be involved in day to day husbandry efforts. The program is being set up so that contributing individuals and organizations can receive tax benefits for all contributions.
Institutions and organizations who have to date expressed interest in participating in this long-term effort include:
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The Tortoise Reserve, Inc.
Alligator Adventure
Ashton Biodiversity Research and Preservation Institute, Inc
St. Augustine Alligator Farm
Cypress Gardens (SC)
The Terrapin Institute
Silver Springs Reptile Institute
Turtle Homes Asia
Alapattah Flats Turtle Preserve
Other established private organizations and institutions who could financially self-support portions of this effort include other tourist based aquariums and reptile theme parks, established herpetological societies and turtle clubs, biology departments and clubs of intermediate sized colleges, nature centers, and perhaps monasteries. Different institutions can house varying numbers and different species assemblages of turtles. This is governed by the size, experience, and staffing of facilities, the size of different turtle species, nature of the facilities, climatic conditions, and the primary mission of the institution or organization.
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Species considered: At this time the following 67 non-marine species are recognized as ones which will benefit from some aspect this program. These are listed in Appendix 1. The list represents all species occurring in the six 10 degree latitude/ longitude blocks on the SE Asia mainland. The current conservation status of each species is included. A secondary list of species of conservation concern which are being impacted by Asian markets, but which are outside the geographic region is also included. If one considers recognized subspecies and populations which exhibit marked geographic variation, the number of taxa doubles. Additional species in the general region are probably also in need of conservation. While it is not realistic to think that all 67 species and their recognized subspecies can be incorporated into this effort, it is highly feasible that the vast majority of them will be. Prioritization for species conservation has, in part, been done by the Chelonian Advisory Group and others, but we believe it is critical to maintain a regional species working list in that the conservation status of many of these species is rapidly changing.
In 1999 the Chelonian Advisory Group recognized 24 of the 67 primary species (listed here in Appendix 1) as one of priority for conservation through in situ management and captive breeding. As of December 1999 only 42 (68%) species of Asian turtles were even housed in accredited zoos world wide (ISIS). Many individuals were not housed as pairs, and only 2 (3%) had been bred in public institutions in the last six months. Base on the primary list 21(31 %) of these turtles are of immediate conservation concern and at least 50 (75 %) are of concern on some level. One should note that IUCN listings are for 1996 and before the Asian food market crisis had reached its current level. It can therefore be assumed the categories of conservation concern listed here are conservative and perhaps outdated. At this time no solution exists for many wild populations and it is anticipated that the situation will worsen before there is any improvement. Of the species listed 26 ( 38 %) are of small maximum size (< 20 cm) and easily housed in captivity but for many species captive breeding should prove quite challenging. Thirty seven (55 %) are small or modest sized species (<30 cm) and very manageable in captive settings. Only 16 (24 %) of the species under consideration are of maximum size exceeding 50 cm and some of these require extensive facilities for propagation.
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Prioritization of species for inclusion into the proposed consortium program is not a simple matter. Obviously the current AZA TAG list of priority species is a good one to work from. Species with documented conservation issues (e.g. Endangered status) are clearly of high priority and except for the few cases where successful captive breeding is on going turtles in this category need to be worked into programs. Species for which there is no information on captive management or breeding need to be at least worked into groups where husbandry techniques can be established. This probably needs only to be done on a small scale. Even if a species is still relatively common in the wild it would be worth while to establish husbandry methods. Our advisory group needs to oversee and probably regularly update prioritization needs. Since exhibiting these turtles will not be a high priority it is likely that the priority list of the consortium will differ somewhat from that of AZA. That said, realistically we expect much of what transpires to be fortuitous. Availability of potential breeding stocks, and space availability, interest and expertise of participating parties can not be anticipated and an informal system which will allow tracking of activities and encourage impromptu decisions of registered volunteer participants is being developed. Climatic conditions at sites of participating organizations and available facilities will adjust priority rankings on a case by case level. Communication between participants is of paramount importance.
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Turtles for individual programs should come largely from confiscation of illegally imported individuals. Other sources include specimens already in private and public collections, and donations. Collecting of individuals from wild populations is discouraged and should only be done in extreme measures and with prior consensus. We need to set the stage so that ownership does not become an issue that gets in the way of propagation and management of captive stocks. Demographic and genetic goals will allow the required size of a captive population to be calculated. To help calculate this information on reproductive characteristics and life history are necessary (age at first breeding, number of hatchlings produced, interval between clutches, and mean life expectancy are basic). For a number of Asian turtles this information is unknown. For long lived species such as tortoises goals of less than 1% probability of extinction in 100 years and retention of 90-95% of genetic diversity the captive population size needed will be in the 100s (vs 1,000s) (Ulie Seal, pers. comm.). Other models in the literature suggest that even smaller breeding groups would be needed, but the point is these are manageable numbers
Proposed Time Frame: Please note this time frame is simply one of generalities. Specifics such as genetic criteria and minimal sizes of captive groups are being addressed early in the program. Prioritization, the exact sequence for organization and facilitation of the program will be generated by our advisory group.
Year 0-3: Identify participating organizations and institutions and a steering committee to oversee program. Inventory existing programs and captive turtle stocks, begin establishment of breeding groups and review prioritization. Review and establish written protocols for breeding groups (both general and species specific care sheets). Identify problem areas and possible solutions, and establish a network to share information. Formalize consortium so that participants can make use of current tax laws. Bring government officials into the program is critical. Develop annual awards for recognition of successful programs. Individual programs will need to develop their own guidelines within the framework of the overall effort.
Year 3-10: Establish breeding groups for all/most taxa of concern. Monitor success of overall effort as well as individual programs. Expand segments of the effort as needed, redefine protocols, develop accreditation guide lines and an accreditation team. Constantly fine tune overall effort and individual programs and work out strategies for dispersal and tracking of surplus stocks. Develop strong educational program about the conservation aspects of the effort and provide supporting institutions and organizations with information and materials as needed to justify program with their administration and supporters. Provide information and materials for graphics for institutions exhibiting Asian turtles. (A photo library of Asian species is currently under development.) Work with proper authorities and organizations to draft laws and regulations which control international trafficking. Develop regional education programs for Asian countries.
Year 10-20: Continue program, identify and work with institutions and organizations in SE Asia for expanding the effort. Reshuffle captive stocks as needed based on changing institutional commitments. Identify areas for possible reintroduction. Continue to size aspects of the consortium as required. Encourage internal and external evaluations of program and encourage all levels of cooperation.
Year 20-100+: Continue captive breeding, educational outreach, and legal efforts as determined. Hopefully begin restocking efforts.
We recognize that zoos, public aquaria, and in one case a regional nature center (Cuc Phoung Conservation Project) are already involved in various levels of Asian turtle conservation. It is our intent to complement existing programs by bringing in expertise, funding, and facilities available in the private sector.
Footnote: The Ashton Institute is already set up to house tortoises and is putting in facilities for terresterial species. They are in their third year of evaluating assurance colonies methodology. The Tortoise Reserve is currently setting up a greenhouse complex which can house breeding groups of approximately 20 taxa of small (ca.< 20 cm) turtles and provide hatchery space for young produced. Alligator Adventure can house approximately 20 large freshwater species in heated exhibit pools which are already in place. A hatchery will eventually need to be constructed which could pool young from both facilities. Thus, just three participating organizations can house over half the species of concern (this does not address subspecies and distinct geographic stocks). However, we need redundancy of breeding efforts and recognize that particular settings may not be successful for certain species. Nevertheless, it is clear that even a few committed organizations can make a positive impact on the overall effort.
As of early 2001 we have about 50 active members. The composite collection has over 80 taxa and well over 3,000 living specimens of Asian chelonians; most are in established breeding groups. We are working closely with the newly formed Turtle Survival Alliance. Most of our board members are on the steering committee of this alliance. We differ from that group primarily in that we are focused only on Asian species, we are most interested in working with the private sector, and we are less formal in our approach.
To join our program email TorResInc@aol.com
Turtles housed by Consortium to date
To learn more about the current Asian turtle situation link to The Asian Turtle Crisis.
Relevant References:
Altherr, S. and D. Freyer. 2000. Asian Turtles are Threatened by Extinction. Turtle and Tortoise Newsletter. 1: 7-11
Barzyk, J. 1999. Turtles in crisis: The Asian food markets. Tortoise Trust (www.tortoisetrust.org).
Bahler, J. L. 1997. Troubled Times for turtles. Proceedings: Conserv., Restor., and Mang. Tortoises and Turtles-An International Conf., New York Turtle and Tortoise Society.
Chelonian Advisory Group Regional Collection Plan 1999 draft.
Das, I. 1977. Conservation problems of tropical Asia's most threatened turtles. Proc.: Conser., Restor., and Manag. Tortoises and Turtles-An Inter. Conf., NYTTS.
Jenkins, M. 1995. Tortoises and freshwater turtles: The Trade in Southeast Asia. Traffic Southeast Asia
Kaesuk Yoon, C. 1999. Turtles vanish in black hole: soup pots and pans of China. New York Times, 4 may, 1999
Martin, E. B. and M. Phillips. 1996. A review of the wild animal trade in Cambodia, Traffic Bulletin 16(2).
National Environmental Protection Agency of China. "China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals: Amphiba and Reptilia", Science Press, Beijing, Hong Kong, New York
Thirakhupt, K. and P. P. van Dijk. 1977. The Turtles of Western Thailand-Pushed to the edge by progress. Prco. Conser., Rest., and Manag. Tortoises and Turtles - An Intl. Conf., NYTTS.
Yiming and Dianmo. 1998. The dynamatics of trade in live wildlife across the Guangxi border between China and Vietnam during 1993-1996 and its control and strategies. Biodiversity and Conservation, 7.
Appendix: Species of Asian Turtles. Conservation assessments are from 1) Chinese Red Data Book, 2) 1996 IUCN Red List.; 3) species considered to be top candidates by the Chelonian Advisory Group for captive and in situ management; and 4) Number of accredited zoos (world wide) with pairs of turtles/total number of turtles/ + = successful captive breeding.Current CITES designations and the legal status of the US Fish and Wildlife Service are also provided.
Amyda cartilaginea: 2) Vulnerable; 4) 0/12/
Aspideretes gangeticus: 2) not listed; 4) 0//
Aspideretes hurum: 2) not listed
Aspideretes nigricus: 2) Critically Endangered
Batagur baska: 2) Endangere; 3) ; 4)2/36/+; CITES I; USFWS Endangered
Callagur borneoensis: 2) Critically Endangered; 3); 4) 3/40/
Chinemys nigricanus: China endemic; 1) Endangered, rare; 3); 4) 0/7/
Chimeys megalocephal: China endemic; 1) Endangered, rare
Chinemys reevesii: 1) conservation dependent; 2) not listed; 3); 4) 6/41/
Chitra chitra: 2) Critically Endangered
Chitra indica: 2)Vulnerable; 4) 1/7/
Cuora amboiensis: 2) Lower risk, near threatened; 4) 6/85/
Cuora aurocapitata: China endemic; 1) Critically endangered, rare; 4) 0/1/
Cuora flavomarginta: 1) Endangered few animals; 2 Vulnerable; 3)*; 4)3/31/+
Cuora galbinifrons: 1) Endangered, declining populations; 2) Lower risk, near threatened; 3) 8; 4)9/51/
Cuora mccordi: China endemic; 1,2) data deficient; 3); 4)2/14/
Cuora pani: China endemic; 1) Critically Endangered; 3) 8; 4) 2/14/
Coura trifasciata: 1) Critically Endangered, very rare; 2) Endangered; 3) ; 4)3/65/
Cuora yunnanensis: China endemic; 1) Probably extinct in the wild; 4) 0/1/
Cuora zhoui: China endemic; 1, 2) data deficient, sharply declining
Cyclemmys dentata: 1) Endangered, rare; 2) not listed; 4) 2/27/
Cyclemmys n. sp. (Thailand and Cambodia); 2) not included
Cyclemmys tcheponensis: 2) not listed; 4) 1/17/
Dogania subplana: 2) not listed
Geochelone elegans: 2) not listed; 3) ; 4) 28/5526/+; CITES II
Geochelone platynota: 2) Critically Endangered; 4)1/11/
Geoclemys hamiltonii: 2) Lower risk, near threatened; 3) ; 4) 3/91/; Cwill I; US Fish and Wildlife Endangered
Geoemyda japonica: 2) Endangered
Geoemya spengleri: 1) Endangered, rare; 2) not listed; 3) ; 4) 12/76/
Hardella thurjii: 2) Lower risk, near threatened; 4) 0/3/
Heosemys depressa: 2) Critically Endangered
Heosemys grandis: 2) Lower risk, near threatened; 4) 5/31/
Heosemys spinosa: 2) Vulnerable; 3) ; 4) 6/56/
Hieremys annandalii: 2) Vulnerable; 4) 1/9/
Indotestudo elongata: 1) Endangered, rare; 2) Vulnerable; 3) ; 4)7/100/; CITES / II
Kachuga dhongoka: 2)Lower risk, near threatened
Kachuga kachuga: 2) Endangered
Kachuga smithi: 2) not listed; 4) 1/10/
Kachuga sylhetensis: 2) data deficent
Kachuga tecta: 2) not listed; 4) 0/41/; CITES I
Kachuga tentoria: 2) Vulnerable; 4) 0/5/
Kachuga trivittata: 2) Endangered
Lissemys punctata: 2) not listed; L. p. scutata data deficent; 3) ; 4) andersoni 2/7/; CITES II
Malayemys subtrijuga: 2) not listed
Manouria emys: 2) Vulnerable; 3) ; 4) 10/90/; CITES II
Manouria impressa: 1) Endangered, rare; 2) Vulnerable; 4) 1/7/; CITES II
Mauremys annamensis: 2) not listed
Mauremys iversoni: China endemic; 1) data deficient, very rare
Mauremys japonica: 2) not listed; 4) 1/20/
Mauremys mutica: 1) Endangered
Melanochelys tricarinata: 2) Vulnerable; CITES I; US Fish and Wildlife Endangered
Melanochelys trijuga: 2) data deficent; 4) 3/189/
Morenia ocellata: 2)Lower risk, near threatened; 4) 1/2/; CITES I: US Fish and Wildlife Endangered
Morenia petersi: Lower risk, near threatened; 4) 0/4/
Nilssonia formosa: 2)Vulnerable
Ocadia glyphistoma: China endemic; 1, 2) data deficient, only 10 specimens known
Ocadia philippeni: China endemic; 1, 2) data deficient, only 9 specimens known
Ocadia sinensis: 1) Endangered, decreasing populations; 2) Lower rish, near threatened; 3) ; 4) 4/29/
Palea steindacheneri: 1) Endangered, very rare; 2) Lower risk, near threatened; 4) 0/1/
Pelochelys cantorii: 2) Vulnerable
Pelodiscus sinensis: 1) Vulnerable; 2) Lower risk, near threatened; 4) 2/26/
Platysternon magacephalum: 1) Endangered, very rare; 2) data deficent; 3) ; 4) 5/42/
Pyxidea mouhotii: 1) Endangered; 2) not listed; 3) ; 4) 1/14/
Rafetus swinhoei: 2) not listed
Sacalia bealei: 1) Endangered; 2) Vulnerable; 3) ; 4) 2/13/
Sacalia pseudocellata: China endemic; 1, 2) data deficient, only 3 specimens known
Sacalia quadriocellata: 1) Endangered, rare; 2) Vulnerable; 4) 1/18/
Siebenrockiella crassicollis : 2) not listed; 4) 4/24/
Other species of conservation concern as a result of Asian markets (Altherr and Freyer 2000):
Aspidetes leithii: 2) Lower risk, near threatened
Chinemys megalocephala: China endemic; 1) Endangered, rare; 2) not included
Pelochelys bibroni: 2) Vulnerable; 4) 0/2/
Testudo horsfieldii: 1) Critically Endangered 2) Vulnerable; 4) 6/80/+
Rudyard Kipling 1902